Leucocytozoon sp.

• transmitted by the black fly, is often sub-clinical, however it can be very devastating and fatal in the young bird. The most common species affected by this parasite are raptors, waterfowl and turkeys. This parasite is often found in the lymphocyte but may also be found in the immature red blood cell

Hemoproteus sp.

• may be transmitted by the hippoboscid fly and midges. Although the pathogenicity is low, clinical disease can be seen in immature birds especially raptors, quail and pigeons.

Plasmodium sp.

• is responsible for avian malaria. Usually found in the red blood cell, this parasite will also infect the thrombocytes and leukocytes. Infections occur sporadically in endemic areas and are seasonally related to the Culicine mosquito populations. Asymptomatic carriers exist with clinical disease common in canaries, ducks, pigeons, domestic poultry, penguins and raptors. Gyrfalcons and gyrfalcon hybrids are highly susceptible to infections. The clinical disease of avian malaria is often fatal if not treated, causing depression, anorexia, anemia and acute death. The biggest challenge is to identify the difference between Hemoproteus sp. and Plasmodium sp. in the blood. This takes the eye of a competent hematologist and at times special staining of the blood sample.

Babesia sp.

• is transmitted through the bite of a tick and can cause significant disease in the Prairie and Saker falcons

Treatment

Treatments for Hemoparasites are specific for each species of parasite. At times the birds may be infected with more than one hemoparasite, complicating the therapy needed.  A combination of blood parasites may be more lethal to the bird.

Plasmodium (avian malaria)

• Active infection:  Mefloquine (Larium) 30 mg/Kg orally twice daily for day one then daily for 2 days then weekly for up to 6 months. Some falcons may require a blood transfusion as part of their supportive care.

• Prevention Program: In endemic areas and for sensitive birds: Mefloquine (Larium) weekly: 30 mg/Kg orally twice daily for 1 day then daily for 2 days then weekly for the Season

Start prevention in the spring. Do not stop prevention until after the first frost.

Hemoproteus:

• use Mefloquine and Chloroquine:  Mefloquine 50 mg/Kg  every 24 hours for 7 days Chloroquine  60 mg/Kg every 24 hours for 7 days

Leucocytozoon:

• Pyrimethamine at 0.5 mg/Kg orally every 12 hours for 14-28 days. May need to supplement with folic or folinic acid. There are reports in the literature that Melarsomine (Immiticide) has been used with success.

 Babesia:

• Treat with Imidocarb (Imizole) at 5 mg/Kg IM and repeat in one week.  Two treatments often effective